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<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 21.&nbsp; ADJECTIVES: POSITION IN A SENTENCE</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 254-->
Words which are used to modify nouns or pronouns are usually referred to
as <B>adjectives</B>. For instance, the adjectives in the following sentences
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>Large</U> trees could be seen.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are <U>happy</U>.<BR>
In the preceding examples, the adjective <B>large</B> modifies the noun
<B>trees</B>, and the adjective <B>happy</B> modifies the pronoun <B>they</B>.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that adjectives can be formed from two or more words
combined by the use of hyphens.<BR>
e.g. the <U>three-month-old</U> baby<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>ninety-dollar</U> jacket<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>two-hour</U> trip<BR>
As illustrated in these examples, the nouns in such hyphenated expressions
are generally in the singular. Thus, the singular forms of the nouns
<B>month</B>, <B>dollar</B> and <B>hour</B> are used.<BR>
<BR>
Most English adjectives have the same form for the singular as for the
plural. The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives <B>this</B> and
<B>that</B>, discussed <A HREF="gramch19.html#3">Chapter 19</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Proper adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>

Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. In English,
proper adjectives must begin with a capital letter. The proper
adjectives in the following sentences are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The <U>French</U> town has an interesting history.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Many of my friends are <U>American</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; This house is a fine example of <U>Victorian</U> architecture.<BR>
<BR>
The derivation of proper adjectives from proper nouns is somewhat
irregular. For instance, the spelling of the following proper nouns
and proper adjectives can be compared.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Proper Noun</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Proper Adjective</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; America</TD><TD>&nbsp; American</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Canada</TD><TD>&nbsp; Canadian</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Germany</TD><TD>&nbsp; German</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Mexico</TD><TD>&nbsp; Mexican</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; George</TD><TD>&nbsp; Georgian</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; Victoria</TD><TD>&nbsp; Victorian</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
Many proper adjectives end with <B>an</B> or <B>ian</B>. However, other endings
are also used, as indicated below.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 255-->
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Proper Noun</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Proper Adjective</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; England</TD><TD>&nbsp; English</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; France</TD><TD>&nbsp; French</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; China</TD><TD>&nbsp; Chinese</TD></TR>
</TABLE><P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Attributive adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>

Adjectives which precede the noun they modify are usually referred to as
<B>attributive</B> adjectives. For instance, in the following examples, the
attributive adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>Heavy</U> rain is expected.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We saw <U>white</U> swans on the river.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, <B>heavy</B> is an attributive adjective modifying the
noun <B>rain</B>, and <B>white</B> is an attributive adjective modifying the noun <B>swans</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a"></A>
<B>a. Order of attributive adjectives</B><BR>
It is possible for a noun to be preceded by many different types of
attributive adjective. In the following example, the attributive
adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>Two</U> <U>large</U> <U>red</U> <U>cardboard</U> <U>milk</U> cartons stood on the steps.<BR>
<BR>
In this example, <B>two</B> is a cardinal number, <B>large</B> is an adjective
indicating size, <B>red</B> is an adjective indicating color, <B>cardboard</B> is
an adjective indicating a type of material, and <B>milk</B> is a defining
adjective indicating purpose.<BR>
<BR>
When a noun is preceded by more than one type of attributive adjective,
the different types of adjective are usually arranged in a particular
order. For instance, the following example contains eleven different
types of attributive adjective.<BR>
e.g. a small, heavy, snug, warm, 100-year-old, round-bellied black iron
Norwegian wood stove<BR>
<BR>
In this example, <B>a</B> is an article, <B>small</B> is an adjective indicating
size, <B>heavy</B> is an adjective indicating weight, <B>snug</B> is a general
descriptive adjective, <B>warm</B> is an adjective indicating temperature,
<B>100-year-old</B> is an adjective indicating age, <B>round-bellied</B> is an
adjective indicating shape, <B>black</B> is an adjective indicating color,
<B>iron</B> is an adjective indicating a type of material, <B>Norwegian</B> is a
proper adjective, and <B>wood</B> is a defining adjective indicating a method
of operation.<BR>
<BR>
The different types of attributive adjective are usually arranged In the
order shown in the following table.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 256-->
<CENTER><B>Usual Order of Attributive Adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>
<BR>
<B>1)</B> certain determiners such as <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and <B>half</B><BR>
<B>2)</B> determiners including the articles <B>a</B>, <B>and</B> and <B>the</B>;<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; possessive adjectives e.g. <B>my</B>, <B>his</B>, <B>her</B>, <B>our</B> and <B>their</B>;<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; demonstrative adjectives e.g. <B>that</B>, <B>these</B>, <B>this</B>, and <B>those</B>; and<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; certain other determiners such as <B>another</B>, <B>any</B>, <B>each</B>, <B>either</B>,<BR> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>enough</B>, <B>every</B>, <B>neither</B>, <B>no</B>, <B>some</B>, <B>what</B> and <B>which</B><BR>
<B>3)</B> cardinal numbers e.g. <B>one</B>, <B>two</B>, <B>three</B>; and<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; certain other determiners such as <B>few</B>, <B>many</B> and <B>several</B><BR>
<B>4)</B> determiners such as <B>fewer</B>, <B>fewest</B>, <B>least</B>, <B>less</B>, <B>more</B> and <B>most</B><BR>
<B>5)</B> general descriptive adjectives, often in the following order:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>a)</B> adjectives indicating size e.g. <B>large</B>, <B>long</B>, <B>narrow</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>b)</B> adjectives indicating weight e.g. <B>heavy</B>, <B>light</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>c)</B> participles and other adjectives e.g. <B>clever</B>, <B>excited</B>, <B>interesting</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>d)</B> adjectives indicating temperature e.g. <B>cold</B>, <B>hot</B>, <B>warm</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>e)</B> adjectives indicating humidity e.g. <B>dry</B>, <B>damp</B>, <B>wet</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>f)</B> adjectives indicating age e.g. <B>new</B>, <B>six-month-old</B>, <B>young</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp;<B>g)</B> adjectives indicating shape e.g. <B>barrel-shaped</B>, <B>round</B>, <B>square</B><BR>
<B>6)</B> adjectives indicating color e.g. <B>blue</B>, <B>grey</B>, <B>white</B><BR>
<B>7)</B> adjectives indicating materials e.g. <B>cloth</B>, <B>leather</B>, <B>metal</B><BR>
<B>8)</B> proper adjectives e.g. <B>American</B>, <B>Victorian</B><BR>
<B>9)</B> defining adjectives, usually indicating purpose, method of operation, location,<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; time or categories of people<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a1"></A>
<B>i. Determiners</B><BR>
The usual order of different types of determiner is
indicated in the first four categories of the table above.<BR>
<BR>
<B>1)</B> The determiners in the first category, <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and <B>half</B>,
usually precede other attributive adjectives.<BR>
e.g. <U>all</U> three tables<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>both</U> the students<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>half</U> the red roses<BR>
<BR>
Alternatively, before the article <B>the</B>, the words <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and
<B>half</B> may be used as pronouns, followed by the word <B>of</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>all of</U> the tables<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>both of</U> the students<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>half of</U> the red roses<BR>
<BR>
<B>2)</B> The determiners in the second category of the table above include
articles, possessive adjectives, demonstrative adjectives, and the
determiners <B>another</B>, <B>any</B>, <B>each</B>, <B>either</B>, <B>enough</B>, <B>every</B>,
<B>neither</B>, <B>no</B>, <B>some</B>, <B>what</B> and <B>which</B>. A noun can usually be
modified by only <U>one</U> of the attributive adjectives in this category.<BR>
<BR>
If it is desired to convey the idea expressed by a possessive adjective
combined with another adjective in this category, the possessive adjective
must be changed to the corresponding possessive pronoun preceded by <B>of</B>,
and must follow the noun.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 257-->
For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase <B>this black horse</B>,
combined with the possessive adjective <B>my</B>; and the phrase <B>a book</B>
combined with the possessive adjective <B>your</B> may be conveyed as follows:<BR>
e.g. this black horse <U>of mine</U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a book <U>of yours</U><BR>
<BR>
In a somewhat similar way, the determiners <B>another</B>, <B>any</B>, <B>each</B>, 
<B>either</B>, <B>enough</B>, <B>neither</B>, <B>some</B> and <B>which</B> may be combined with
other members of the second category of adjective by being used as
pronouns followed by <B>of</B>.<BR>
<BR>
For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase <B>my dresses</B>, combined
with the determiner <B>any</B>; and the phrase <B>these white flowers</B>, combined
with the determiner <B>either</B> may be conveyed as follows:<BR>
e.g. <U>any of</U> my dresses<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>either of</U> these white flowers<BR>
<BR>
Since the determiners <B>every</B> and <B>no</B> cannot be used as pronouns,
the expressions <B>every one</B> and <B>none</B> must be used. For instance,
the ideas expressed in the phrase <B>these children</B>, combined with the
determiner <B>every</B>; and the phrase <B>their opinions</B>, combined with the
determiner <B>no</B> may be conveyed as follows:<BR>
e.g. <U>every one of</U> these children<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>none of</U> their opinions<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>3)</B> The determiners in the third category of the table above include the
cardinal numbers, and the determiners <B>few</B>, <B>many</B> and <B>several</B>. As
illustrated in the following examples, the determiners in this category
usually follow determiners in the previous two categories, and precede
other attributive adjectives.<BR>
e.g. all <U>twelve</U> red roses<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; their <U>many</U> exciting adventures<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that <B>other</B> usually precedes a cardinal number when
an article or possessive adjective is present, but usually follows a
cardinal number when no article or possessive adjective is present.<BR>
e.g. the <U>other</U> <U>three</U> chairs<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; my <U>other</U> <U>two</U> cousins<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>three</U> <U>other</U> chairs<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>two</U> <U>other</U> cousins<BR>
<BR>
In the first two examples, the article <B>the</B> and the possessive article
<B>my</B> are present, and <B>other</B> precedes the cardinal numbers <B>three</B> and
<B>two</B>. In the second two examples, no article or possessive adjective
is present, and <B>other</B> follows the cardinal numbers <B>three</B> and <B>two</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>4)</B> The determiners <B>fewer</B>, <B>fewest</B>, <B>least</B>, <B>less</B>, <B>more</B> and <B>most</B> 
usually follow other determiners.<BR>
e.g. the <U>fewest</U> mistakes<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; two <U>more</U> children<BR>

<!--page 258-->
In the first example, <B>fewest</B> follows the determiner <B>the</B>. In the second
example, <B>more</B> follows the determiner <B>two</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a2"></A>
<B>ii. General descriptive adjectives</B><BR>
As indicated in the preceding table,
general descriptive adjectives usually follow determiners and precede
other types of attributive adjective.
As shown in the table, there
are several types of general descriptive adjective, which often occur
in a certain order.
However, the order of different types of general
descriptive adjective is more flexible than the order of other types
of attributive adjective.<BR>
<A NAME="2a2si"></A>
<BR>
<B>a)</B> Attributive adjectives indicating size usually follow any determiners,
but precede other types of attributive adjective. In the following phrases,
the adjectives indicating size are underlined.<BR>
e.g. three <U>large</U>, level platforms<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; her two <U>tiny</U> brown lap dogs<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; that <U>enormous</U> English dictionary<BR>
<BR>
Below are pairs of adjectives with opposite meanings, indicating size:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; deep</TD><TD>&nbsp; shallow</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; enormous</TD><TD>&nbsp; tiny</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; large</TD><TD>&nbsp; small</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; long</TD><TD>&nbsp; short</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; wide</TD><TD>&nbsp; narrow</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; thick</TD><TD>&nbsp; thin</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<A NAME="2a2we"></A>
<BR>
<B>b)</B> Adjectives indicating weight usually follow adjectives indicating
size, but precede other types of attributive adjective. In the following
phrases, the adjectives indicating weight are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a small, <U>heavy</U> parcel<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; two <U>light</U> nylon knapsacks<BR>
<BR>
The following are examples of adjectives indicating weight:<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; heavy<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; light<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 5-kilogram<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2-ton<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>c)</B> Participles and other general descriptive adjectives which do not
fall into any of the other categories usually follow adjectives indicating
size and weight, and precede other types of attributive adjective. In the
following examples, the adjective <B>alert</B>, and the participles <B>twittering</B>
and <B>excited</B> are underlined.<BR>
e.g. two large, <U>alert</U> black cats<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; eleven tiny, <U>twittering</U> birds<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; many <U>excited</U> children<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 259-->
<B>d)</B> to <B>g)</B> The order of adjectives indicating temperature, humidity, age and
shape is not as predictable as the order of other attributive adjectives.
For instance, adjectives indicating temperature occur sometimes before
and sometimes after general descriptive adjectives such as <B>clear</B> and
<B>hard</B>.<BR>
e.g. clear, <U>cold</U> water<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>cold</U>, hard ice<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that the position of attributive adjectives indicating
age may be altered to change the emphasis.<BR>
e.g. a <U>new</U>, efficient method<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; an <U>efficient</U>, new method<BR>
In the first example, the adjective <B>new</B> is emphasized. In the second
example, the adjective <B>efficient</B> is emphasized.<BR>
<BR>
However, the most usual order of adjectives indicating temperature,
humidity, age and shape is that indicated in the table. For instance,
adjectives indicating temperature usually precede adjectives indicating
humidity.<BR>
e.g. a <U>hot</U>, <U>dry</U> wind<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>cold</U>, <U>wet</U> dog<BR>
In these examples, the adjectives <B>hot</B> and <B>cold</B>, indicating temperature,
precede the adjectives <B>dry</B> and <B>wet</B>, indicating humidity.<BR>
<BR>
As can be seen in the preceding examples, general descriptive adjectives
are usually separated from one another by commas. This is illustrated
In the following examples, in which the general descriptive adjectives
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a <U>small</U>, <U>triangular</U> wooden boat<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; those five <U>thick</U>, <U>strong</U>, <U>two-hundred-year-old</U> oak trees<BR>
<BR>
Below are examples of adjectives which indicate temperature, humidity,
age and shape.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Temperature</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Humidity</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Age</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Shape</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; hot</TD><TD>&nbsp; wet</TD><TD>&nbsp; new</TD><TD>&nbsp; square</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; cold</TD><TD>&nbsp; dry</TD><TD>&nbsp; old</TD><TD>&nbsp; round</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; warm</TD><TD>&nbsp; damp</TD><TD>&nbsp; young</TD><TD>&nbsp; triangular</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; cool</TD><TD>&nbsp; humid</TD><TD>&nbsp; six-week-old</TD><TD>&nbsp; octagonal</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; moist</TD><TD>&nbsp; two-year-old</TD><TD>&nbsp; spherical</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#4">Exercise 4</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a3"></A>
<B>iii. Adjectives indicating color</B><BR>
Adjectives indicating color usually
precede adjectives indicating materials, proper adjectives, and defining
adjectives, but follow other types of attributive adjective.<BR>
<BR>
In the following examples, the adjectives indicating color are underlined.<BR>
e.g. threatening <U>black</U> clouds<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; her new <U>red</U> leather jacket<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a square <U>brown</U> mahogany table<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 260-->
Below are examples of adjectives which indicate color:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; red</TD><TD>&nbsp; black</TD><TD>&nbsp; pink</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; orange</TD><TD>&nbsp; white</TD><TD>&nbsp; magenta</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; yellow</TD><TD>&nbsp; brown</TD><TD>&nbsp; scarlet</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; green</TD><TD>&nbsp; beige</TD><TD>&nbsp; crimson</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; blue</TD><TD>&nbsp; silver</TD><TD>&nbsp; fox-red</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; violet</TD><TD>&nbsp; golden</TD><TD>&nbsp; olive-green</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; purple</TD><TD>&nbsp; turquoise</TD><TD>&nbsp; sky-blue, etc.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a4"></A>
<B>iv. Adjectives indicating materials</B><BR>
Attributive adjectives indicating
the materials from which objects are made usually follow any adjectives
indicating color and precede any proper or defining adjectives. In the
following examples, adjectives indicating materials are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a beautiful grey <U>silk</U> scarf<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ten black <U>plastic</U> coat hangers<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the clean <U>wooden</U> floor<BR>
<BR>
In modern English, most adjectives indicating the materials from which
objects are made have the same form as the corresponding nouns. For
Instance, the words <B>silk</B> and <B>plastic</B> can be used either as nouns or
as adjectives. One of the few exceptions is the adjective <B>wooden</B>, which
corresponds to the noun <B>wood</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Below are examples of adjectives which indicate materials:<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; wooden</TD><TD>&nbsp; cotton</TD><TD>&nbsp; metal</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; paper</TD><TD>&nbsp; wool</TD><TD>&nbsp; iron</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; cardboard</TD><TD>&nbsp; silk</TD><TD>&nbsp; steel</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; plastic</TD><TD>&nbsp; satin</TD><TD>&nbsp; brass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; rock</TD><TD>&nbsp; corduroy</TD><TD>&nbsp; gold</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; stone</TD><TD>&nbsp; velvet</TD><TD>&nbsp; silver</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; brick</TD><TD>&nbsp; flannel</TD><TD>&nbsp; copper</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; concrete</TD><TD>&nbsp; denim</TD><TD>&nbsp; lead</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; glass</TD><TD>&nbsp; nylon</TD><TD>&nbsp; tin</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; leather</TD><TD>&nbsp; polyester</TD><TD>&nbsp; aluminum</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a5"></A>
<B>v. The position of proper adjectives</B><BR>
Proper adjectives usually follow
all other types of attributive adjective except defining adjectives.<BR>
<BR>
Proper adjectives are usually derived from proper nouns referring to
places or persons. In the following examples, the proper adjectives
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. sparkling <U>French</U> wine<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; three red brick <U>Georgian</U> manor houses<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the proper adjective <B>French</B> is derived from the
place name <B>France</B>, and indicates the place of origin of the wine. In
the second example, the proper adjective <B>Georgian</B> is derived from
<B>George</B>, the name of an English king, and indicates that the houses are
built in a style developed during the reign of that king.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 261-->
It should be noted that proper adjectives may sometimes precede adjectives
indicating materials, as in the following examples. This occurs when
the adjective indicating a material is used as a type of defining
adjective, to help identify what type of object is being described.<BR>
e.g. <U>Mexican</U> straw hats<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; an <U>American</U> pearl necklace<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#5">Exercises 5</A> and <A HREF="gramex21.html#6">6</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a6"></A>
<B>vi. Defining adjectives</B><BR>
When a word preceding a noun does not merely
describe the object being referred to, but helps to define or identify
the type of object meant, the word preceding the noun can be called a
<B>defining</B> adjective. The defining adjectives in the following examples
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. an enjoyable <U>birthday</U> party<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a fine <U>young</U> man<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the new <U>telephone</U> directory<BR>
<BR>
Defining adjectives are combined with nouns to form fixed expressions,
in order to refer to certain types of things. In the above examples,
<B>birthday party</B>, <B>young man</B> and <B>telephone directory</B> are fixed
expressions which are commonly used to refer to certain types of things.<BR>
<BR>
In many such expressions, the defining adjectives are words which are
usually used as nouns. For instance, in the above examples, <B>birthday</B>,
and <B>telephone</B> are words which are usually used as nouns. In such cases,
the fixed expressions are sometimes thought of as <B>compound nouns</B>.<BR>
<A NAME="2a6ge"></A>
<BR>
Many words which are used as gerunds can also be used as defining
adjectives, as illustrated in the following examples.<BR>
e.g. black <U>hiking</U> boots<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; our <U>drinking</U> water<BR>
<BR>
In this type of fixed expression, it is also possible for two words to
be used together as defining adjectives. In the following examples, the
words used as defining adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a <U>roller skating</U> rink<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>hot water</U> bottle<BR>
<BR>
Defining adjectives usually immediately precede the nouns they modify.
Many defining adjectives indicate the purpose for which the object being
referred to is used. In the following examples, the defining adjectives
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. an <U>egg</U> carton<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>coat</U> hanger<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>dish</U> cloth<BR>
An <B>egg carton</B> is a carton used for storing eggs, a <B>coat hanger</B> is an
object used for hanging up coats, and a <B>dish cloth</B> is a cloth used for
washing dishes.<BR>
<BR>
As can be seen in these examples, when a word usually used as a
countable noun is used as a defining adjective, it is normally the
singular form of the word which is used. Thus, in the preceding
examples, the singular forms <B>egg</B>, <B>coat</B> and <B>dish</B> are used.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 262-->
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#7">Exercise 7</A>.<BR>
<BR>
Defining adjectives can also indicate the method of operation of an
object. This is the case in the following examples.<BR>
e.g. a <U>steam</U> iron<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>ten-speed</U> bicycle<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; an <U>electric</U> light<BR>
<BR>
Defining adjectives sometimes help to define the object being referred
to by indicating time or location.<BR>
e.g. the <U>morning</U> star<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>winter</U> term<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>front</U> door<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>kitchen</U> window<BR>
In these examples the adjectives <B>morning</B> and <B>winter</B> indicate time,
and the adjectives <B>front</B> and <B>kitchen</B> indicate location.<BR>
<BR>
Defining adjectives are also used in fixed expressions which refer to
certain categories of people.<BR>
e.g. a <U>little</U> girl<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>baby</U> boy<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; an <U>old</U> woman<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#8">Exercise 8</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a7"></A>
<B>vii. Ordinal adjectives</B><BR>
Attributive adjectives such as <B>next</B>, <B>last</B>,
<B>first</B>, <B>second</B>, <B>third</B> and so on, are sometimes referred to as
<B>ordinal</B> adjectives, since they indicate the order in which things
occur.<BR>
<BR>
When they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the
property of modifying any following attributive adjectives together
with the accompanying noun.
For this reason, the position of an
ordinal adjective relative to other attributive adjectives can
affect the meaning of a phrase.<BR>
e.g. the <U>first</U> reluctant witness<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the reluctant <U>first</U> witness<BR>
<BR>
The two preceding examples have different meanings. In the phrase
<B>the first reluctant witness</B>, the adjective <B>first</B> modifies the
following adjective <B>reluctant</B> together with the noun <B>witness</B>.
This means that although there may have been previous witnesses,
the phrase refers to the first witness who was reluctant.<BR>
<BR>
However, in the phrase <B>the reluctant first witness</B>, the adjective
<B>first</B> modifies only the noun <B>witness</B>. This means that there
were no previous witnesses. The phrase refers to the first witness,
indicating that this witness was reluctant.<BR>
<BR>
Below is a similar example, giving two phrases with different meanings.<BR>
e.g. the <U>second</U> unpredictable year<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the unpredictable <U>second</U> year<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 263-->
In the phrase <B>the second unpredictable year</B>, the adjective <B>second</B>
modifies the following adjective <B>unpredictable</B> together with the noun
<B>year</B>. This means that although there may have been more than one
previous year, the phrase refers to the second year which was
unpredictable.<BR>
<BR>
However, in the phrase <B>the unpredictable second year</B>, the adjective
<B>second</B> modifies only the noun <B>year</B>. This means that there was only
one previous year. The phrase refers to the second year, indicating that
this year was unpredictable.<BR>
<BR>
As illustrated in the preceding examples, the position of ordinal
attributive adjectives varies depending upon what meaning is to be
conveyed.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#9">Exercise 9</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b"></A>
<B>b. Punctuation used with attributive adjectives</B><BR>
As already indicated, general descriptive adjectives, including adjectives
indicating size, weight, temperature, humidity, age and shape are usually
separated from one another by commas.<BR>
e.g. the long, winding road<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a heavy, awkward box<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a cold, wet mist<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a small, square room<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, determiners, possessive adjectives, adjectives representing
cardinal numbers, and ordinal adjectives are usually not followed by commas.
In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>those</U> large chairs<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>my</U> new shirts<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>two</U> narrow paths<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>the</U> <U>first</U> tall building<BR>
<BR>
In addition, defining adjectives, proper adjectives, and adjectives
indicating color and materials are usually not preceded by commas. In
the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a large <U>egg</U> carton<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a beautiful <U>Chinese</U> vase<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; elegant <U>black</U> boots<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a dilapidated <U>stone</U> building<BR>
<BR>
However, it should be noted that in some cases, proper adjectives and
adjectives indicating shape, color and materials may or may not be
preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these
types are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a beautiful <U>Japanese</U> necklace <B>or</B> a beautiful, <U>Japanese</U> necklace<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a small <U>square</U> tower <B>or</B> a small, <U>square</U> tower<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a thin <U>grey</U> cat <B>or</B> a thin, <U>grey</U> cat<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a black <U>leather</U> briefcase <B>or</B> a black, <U>leather</U> briefcase<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 264-->
When such adjectives are <B>not</B> preceded by commas, there is an implication
that the adjectives are used to help identify the object being described.
However, when such adjectives <B>are</B> preceded by commas, there is an implication
that the adjectives are provided only for purposes of description, and are
not being used to help identify the object being described.<BR>
<BR>
For example, in the phrase <B>a small square tower</B>, there is the implication
that the shape of the tower helps to identify which tower is meant. However,
in the phrase <B>a small, square tower</B> there is the implication that the
adjective <B>square</B> is provided only for purposes of description, and is
not being used to help identify which tower is meant.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#10">Exercise 10</A>.<BR>
<A NAME="2bco"></A>
<BR>
There is also a distinction in meaning associated with the presence or
absence of commas following ordinal adjectives. When followed by commas,
ordinal adjectives function similarly to general descriptive adjectives,
and modify only the accompanying noun.<BR>
e.g. the <U>last</U>, lonely outpost<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>first</U>, faint morning light<BR>
In the first example, the adjective <B>last</B> modifies the noun <B>outpost</B>.
In the second example, the adjective <B>first</B> modifies the noun <B>light</B>.<BR>
<BR>
However, as explained in the section on ordinal adjectives, when they
are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the property of
modifying any following attributive adjectives together with the
accompanying noun.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2c"></A>
<B>c. Stress used with attributive adjectives</B><BR>
In speaking, nouns are usually pronounced with more stress than the
preceding attributive adjectives. In the following examples, the words
which are pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined.<BR>
e.g. a small, green <U>cucumber</U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; an old, rectangular <U>courtyard</U><BR>
In these examples, the nouns <B>cucumber</B> and <B>courtyard</B> are pronounced
with slightly more emphasis than the preceding adjectives.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2c1"></A>
<B>i. Adjectives indicating materials</B><BR>
However, there are several
exceptions to the rule that the noun has the most emphasis. For
instance, when a noun is immediately preceded by an adjective naming a
material, the adjective is usually pronounced with the same degree of
emphasis as the noun.<BR>
e.g. a <U>leather</U> <U>belt</U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a <U>silver</U> <U>spoon</U><BR>
In these examples, the adjectives <B>leather</B> and <B>silver</B> are pronounced
with the same degree of emphasis as the nouns <B>belt</B> and <B>spoon</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2c2"></A>
<B>ii. Defining adjectives indicating location or time</B><BR>
Also, when a noun
is preceded by a defining adjective indicating location or time, the
adjective is usually pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the
noun.<BR>
e.g. the <U>front</U> <U>door</U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>fall</U> <U>term</U><BR>

<!--page 265-->
In these examples, the defining adjectives <B>front</B>, indicating
location, and <B>fall</B>, indicating time, are pronounced with the
same degree of emphasis as the nouns <B>door</B> and <B>term</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2c3"></A>
<B>iii. Defining adjectives indicating purpose</B><BR>
However, when a defining
adjective indicates the purpose of the object being described, the
defining adjective usually has a strong emphasis, while the noun which
follows it has a weak emphasis.<BR>
e.g. brown <U>hiking</U> boots<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; a red <U>milk</U> carton<BR>
In these examples, the defining adjectives <B>hiking</B> and <B>milk</B> receive
a stronger emphasis than either the succeeding nouns <B>boots</B> and
<B>carton</B>, or the preceding attributive adjectives.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#11">Exercise 11</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="3"></A>
<CENTER><B>3. Predicate adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>

<A NAME="3a"></A>
<B>a. Attributive adjectives which can be used as predicate adjectives</B><BR>
An adjective which is separated from the noun or pronoun it modifies by
a verb is often referred to as a <B>predicate</B> adjective. The predicate
adjectives in the following examples are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The horse is <U>black</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The streets are <U>long</U> and <U>narrow</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; It is <U>large</U>, <U>heavy</U> and <U>awkward</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, the adjective <B>black</B> modifies the noun <B>horse</B>.
the adjectives <B>long</B> and <B>narrow</B> modify the noun <B>streets</B>,
and the adjectives <B>large</B>, <B>heavy</B> and <B>awkward</B> modify the
pronoun <B>it</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Most general descriptive adjectives, as well as adjectives indicating
color, can be used as predicate adjectives. In the following examples,
the predicate adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The answer is <U>puzzling</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; These envelopes are <U>small</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The bucket was <U>heavy</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The weather will be <U>cool</U> and <U>dry</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; That child is <U>young</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The cake is <U>round</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The leaves are <U>red</U>, <U>yellow</U> and <U>orange</U>.<BR>
<A NAME="3aat"></A>
<BR>
However, there are a few general descriptive adjectives which cannot be
used as predicate adjectives. For example, the adjectives listed below
are normally used only as attributive adjectives.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 266-->
&nbsp; &nbsp; <U><B>Adjectives used only Attributively</B></U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; chief<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; main<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; principal<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; sheer<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; utter<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that although they cannot be used with attributive
adjectives, pronouns can be used with predicate adjectives.<BR>
e.g. He is <U>happy</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She is <U>proud</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We are <U>careful</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They are <U>successful</U>.<BR>
<BR>
Proper adjectives are sometimes used as predicate adjectives.<BR>
e.g. That car is <U>American</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; This one is <U>Japanese</U>.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that hyphenated adjectives containing nouns often
cannot be used as predicate adjectives. When such an expression follows
the verb, the hyphens are omitted and the noun assumes a plural form,
if required. In the following examples, the nouns contained in the
hyphenated adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. the two-<U>year</U>-old child<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the one-<U>hour</U> program<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; forty-<U>dollar</U> shoes<BR>
<BR>
When placed after the verb, the hyphenated adjectives must be changed as
follows:<BR>
e.g. The child is <U>two years old</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The length of the program is <U>one hour</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The price of the shoes is <U>forty dollars</U>.<BR>
<BR>
However, hyphenated adjectives which do not contain nouns can often be
used as predicate adjectives. For instance, in the following examples,
the hyphenated adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. the <U>long-winded</U> orator<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>wide-spread</U> belief<BR>
<BR>
These adjectives contain past participles. Hyphenated adjectives containing
past participles are frequently used as predicate adjectives.<BR>
e.g. The orator was <U>long-winded</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The belief is <U>wide-spread</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3a1"></A>
<B>i. Order</B><BR>
The order of predicate adjectives relative to one another is
generally the same as the order of attributive adjectives relative to
one another. The following examples illustrate the order of predicate
adjectives.<BR>
e.g. The package is <U>small</U> and <U>light</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The weather is <U>clear</U>, <U>cold</U> and <U>dry</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The footstool is <U>round</U> and <U>black</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 267-->
In the first example, the adjective <B>small</B>, indicating size, precedes
the adjective <B>light</B>, indicating weight. In the second example, the
general descriptive adjective <B>clear</B> precedes the adjective <B>cold</B>,
indicating temperature, which precedes the adjective <B>dry</B>, indicating
humidity. In the third example, the adjective <B>round</B>, indicating
shape, precedes the adjective <B>black</B>, indicating color.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3a2"></A>
<B>ii. Punctuation</B><BR>
As can be seen in these examples, the last two adjectives
in a list of predicate adjectives are usually separated from each another
by the word <B>and</B>, and any preceding adjectives are usually separated from
one another by commas.<BR>
e.g. The clothes were clean <B>and</B> dry.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The dancers were tall, slender <B>and</B> graceful.<BR>
<BR>
In a list of three or more predicate adjectives, an additional comma is
sometimes placed before the word <B>and</B>.<BR>
e.g. The dancers were tall, slender<B>,</B> <B>and</B> graceful.<BR>
However, this additional comma is usually considered unnecessary.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#12">Exercise 12</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3b"></A>
<B>b. Adjectives which can be used only as predicate adjectives</B><BR>
The following are examples of adjectives with the prefix <B>a</B> which can
be used only as predicate adjectives, not as attributive adjectives.
The prefix <B>a</B> was formerly a preposition meaning <B>on</B>.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; <U><B>Adjectives used only Predicatively</B></U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; afloat<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; afraid<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; aglow<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; alive<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; alone<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; asleep<BR>
<BR>
In some cases, related words can be used as attributive adjectives. In
the following examples, words used only as predicate adjectives and related
words used as attributive adjectives are underlined.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Predicate Adjectives</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Attributive Adjectives</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The boat is <U>afloat</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; the <U>floating</U> boat</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The child is <U>afraid</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; the <U>frightened</U> child</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The sky is <U>aglow</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; the <U>glowing</U> sky</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The animal is <U>alive</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; the <U>live</U> animal</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The boy is <U>asleep</U>.</TD><TD>&nbsp; the <U>sleeping</U> boy</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
As illustrated below, the words <B>here</B>, <B>there</B> and <B>ready</B> can be used
as predicate adjectives.<BR>
e.g. The children are <U>here</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The records were <U>there</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I am <U>ready</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 268-->
The words <B>here</B> and <B>there</B> are often used as adverbs, and cannot
be used as attributive adjectives. The word <B>ready</B> is used as an
attributive adjective only in certain expressions such as <B>ready money</B>
and <B>a ready answer</B>.<BR>
<A NAME="3bpa"></A>
<BR>
As illustrated in the following examples, a few adjectives differ in
meaning, depending upon whether they are used as predicate adjectives
or attributive adjectives.<BR>
e.g. The treasurer was <U>present</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>present</U> treasurer<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Robin Harris was <U>late</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>late</U> Robin Harris<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; My friend is <U>poor</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; my <U>poor</U> friend<BR>
<BR>
In the sentence <B>the treasurer was present</B>, the predicate adjective
<B>present</B> indicates that the treasurer was not absent. However, in
the phrase <B>the present treasurer</B>, the attributive adjective <B>present</B>
indicates that the person referred to holds the position of treasurer
at the present time.<BR>
<BR>
In the sentence <B>Robin Harris was late</B>, the predicate adjective <B>late</B>
indicates that Robin Harris did not arrive on time. However, in the
phrase <B>the late Robin Harris</B>, the attributive adjective <B>late</B>
indicates that Robin Harris is no longer alive.<BR>
<BR>
In the sentence <B>my friend is poor</B>, the predicate adjective <B>poor</B>
indicates that my friend has little money. However, in the phrase <B>my
poor friend</B>, the attributive adjective <B>poor</B> indicates that my friend
is in an unfortunate situation.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#13">Exercise 13</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3c"></A>
<B>c. Linking verbs</B><BR>
In addition to the verb <B>to be</B>, certain other verbs can be followed by
predicate adjectives. Such verbs are sometimes referred to as <B>linking</B>
verbs, since they can link nouns or pronouns to modifying adjectives. For
instance, the following verbs can be used as linking verbs.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Linking Verb</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Linking Verb used with Predicate Adjective</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to become</TD><TD>&nbsp; The wind <U>became</U> stronger.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to feel</TD><TD>&nbsp; The blanket <U>feels</U> soft, warm and comfortable.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to grow</TD><TD>&nbsp; The weather <U>is growing</U> cold.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to look</TD><TD>&nbsp; The sky <U>looked</U> grey and overcast.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to seem</TD><TD>&nbsp; His reasoning <U>seems</U> logical.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to smell</TD><TD>&nbsp; The soup <U>smelled</U> good.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to sound</TD><TD>&nbsp; The story <U>sounds</U> interesting.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to taste</TD><TD>&nbsp; The carrots <U>tasted</U> sweet.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; to turn</TD><TD>&nbsp; The leaves <U>turned</U> scarlet.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>

<!--page 269-->
In the above examples, the linking verbs link noun subjects with
predicate adjectives.<BR>
<BR>
When a verb is used as a linking verb, it is intransitive, since it
does not take an object. It should be noted that many of the verbs
listed above can also be used transitively.<BR>
e.g. The child <U>felt</U> the blankets.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We <U>smelled</U> the soup.<BR>
In these examples, the verbs <B>to feel</B> and <B>to smell</B> are used
transitively, taking the objects <B>blankets</B> and <B>soup</B> respectively.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#14">Exercise 14</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="4"></A>
<CENTER><B>4. Interpolated adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>

As well as being used as attributive or predicate adjectives, general
descriptive adjectives and adjectives indicating color can also be
placed elsewhere in a sentence. When used in this way, adjectives
can be said to be <B>interpolated</B> into a sentence. In the following
sentences, the interpolated adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The child, <U>happy and excited</U>, ran along the beach.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Startled</U>, the small yellow bird stopped singing.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Tense, expectant and alert</U>, we waited to see what would happen.<BR>
<BR>
Since the use of interpolated adjectives is somewhat uncommon, the use
of interpolation can serve to emphasize the adjectives. Interpolated
adjectives are most often placed immediately after a noun, as shown in
the first example; or before a noun or pronoun at the beginning of a
sentence, as shown in the second and third examples.<BR>
<BR>
As illustrated above, a noun can be modified simultaneously by both
interpolated and attributive adjectives. For instance, in the second
example, the noun <B>bird</B> is modified by both the interpolated adjective
<B>startled</B> and the attributive adjectives <B>the small yellow</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Care must be taken in the positioning of interpolated adjectives, since
the reader or listener will usually assume that the adjectives modify
the nearest noun or pronoun.<BR>
<A NAME="4co"></A>
<BR>
As can be seen from the examples, the punctuation of interpolated
adjectives is similar to that of predicate adjectives. When more than
one adjective is used, the last two adjectives are separated from one
another by the word <B>and</B>, and previous adjectives are separated from
one another by commas.<BR>
<BR>
However, unlike predicate adjectives, interpolated adjectives must also
be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. For instance, in
the first example above, the interpolated adjectives <B>happy and excited</B>
are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before the word
<B>happy</B>, and a comma following the word <B>excited</B>. Likewise, in the
second example, the interpolated adjective <B>startled</B> is separated from
the rest of the sentence by a comma; and in the third example, the
interpolated adjectives <B>tense, expectant and alert</B> are separated
from the rest of the sentence by a comma following the word <B>alert</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 270-->
Interpolated adjectives are used more often in written English than in
spoken English.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#15">Exercise 15</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="5"></A>
<CENTER><B>5. Adjectival phrases and clauses</B></CENTER><BR>

Nouns and pronouns can be modified not only by adjectives, but also by
adjectival phrases and clauses. In the following examples, the adjectival
phrases and clauses are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The table <U>near the door</U> is made of oak.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The one <U>on the desk</U> is mine.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The chair, <U>which was placed in front of the window</U>, was an heirloom.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Those <U>who decide to come</U> will not be disappointed.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the noun <B>table</B> is modified by the adjectival
phrase <B>near the door</B>. In the second example, the pronoun <B>one</B> is
modified by the adjectival phrase <B>on the desk</B>. In the third example,
the noun <B>chair</B> is modified by the adjectival clause <B>which was placed
in front of the window</B>. In the fourth example, the pronoun <B>those</B> is
modified by the adjectival clause <B>who decide to come</B>.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that phrases do not contain verbs, whereas clauses
do contain verbs. Phrases and clauses will be discussed further in the
chapters dealing with prepositions and conjunctions. As illustrated in
the preceding examples, an adjectival phrase or clause usually immediately
follows the noun or pronoun being modified.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="6"></A>
<CENTER><B>6. Participles used as adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>

As has already been mentioned, present and past participles of verbs can
be used as adjectives.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="6a"></A>
<B>a. Present participles</B><BR>
Present participles used as adjectives refer to actions being performed <B>by</B>
the things being described. In the following examples the present
participles used as adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. the <U>falling</U> star<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>barking</U> dog<BR>
The first example indicates that the star is performing the action of
falling. The second example indicates that the dog is performing the
action of barking.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="6b"></A>
<B>b. Past participles</B><BR>
Past participles used as adjectives refer to actions which have been
performed <B>on</B> the things being described. In the following examples, the
past participles used as adjectives are underlined.<BR>
e.g. the <U>scattered</U> leaves<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; the <U>broken</U> drum<BR>
The first example indicates that something has scattered the leaves.
The second example indicates that something has broken the drum.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#16">Exercise 16</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 271-->
<A NAME="6c"></A>
<B>c. Dangling participles</B><BR>
As well as being used as attributive and predicate adjectives, past and
present participles can also be used at the beginning of adjectival
phrases interpolated into a sentence. In the following sentences, the
interpolated adjectival phrases are underlined. As illustrated by the
examples, an interpolated phrase must be separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma.<BR>
e.g. <U>Feeling hungry</U>, the child ate an apple.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Disconcerted by the news</U>, we headed for the nearest farmhouse.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the present participle <B>feeling</B> begins the
adjectival phrase <B>feeling hungry</B>, which modifies the noun <B>child</B>.
In the second example, the past participle <B>disconcerted</B> begins the
adjectival phrase <B>disconcerted by the news</B>, which modifies the
pronoun <B>we</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Since the listener or reader tends to assume that an interpolated
adjectival phrase is meant to modify the nearest noun or pronoun, care
must be taken to make sure that such a phrase is positioned close to the
noun or pronoun to be modified. A participle that begins an interpolated
phrase that is not sufficiently close to the noun or pronoun to be
modified is usually referred to as a <B>dangling</B> participle. Dangling
participles can result in ambiguity, or in sentences which do not make
sense.<BR>
<BR>
In the following sentences, the phrases beginning with dangling participles
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The photographer focused the camera, <U>holding his breath</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Running across the road</U>, his hat blew off.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the noun to be modified is <B>photographer</B>. However,
the phrase <B>holding his breath</B> is separated from the noun to be modified
by the noun <B>camera</B>. Thus, the phrase <B>holding his breath</B> seems to
modify the noun <B>camera</B>. In the second example, the noun or pronoun to
be modified is missing from the sentence, and the phrase <B>running across
the road</B> seems to modify the noun <B>hat</B>.<BR>
<BR>
These example illustrate two basic types of dangling participle. In one
type, the participle begins an adjectival phrase which is separated from
the noun or pronoun to be modified by another noun or pronoun. In the
other type, the participle begins an adjectival phrase that is meant to
modify a noun or pronoun which in fact is not present in the sentence.<BR>
<BR>
When an adjectival phrase is separated from the noun or pronoun to be
modified by another noun or pronoun, the sentence can be corrected by
positioning the adjectival phrase next to the noun or pronoun to be
modified. This can often be accomplished by moving the phrase from one
end of the sentence to the other.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 272-->
For instance, in the sentences below, the nouns to be modified and the
phrases containing dangling participles are underlined.<BR>
e.g. The <U>photographer</U> focused the camera, <U>holding his breath</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Working as quickly as possible</U>, our car was repaired by a <U>mechanic</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Lost for over thirty years</U>, she was overjoyed to find the <U>diaries</U>.<BR>
In these examples, <B>holding his breath</B> seems to modify the noun
<B>camera</B>, <B>working as quickly as possible</B> seems to modify the noun
<B>car</B>, and <B>lost for over thirty years</B> seems to modify the pronoun
<B>she</B>.<BR>
<BR>
These sentences can be corrected as follows.<BR>
e.g. <U>Holding his breath</U>, the <U>photographer</U> focused the camera.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Our car was repaired by a <U>mechanic</U>, <U>working as quickly as possible</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She was overjoyed to find the <U>diaries</U>, <U>lost for over thirty years</U>.<BR>
In the corrected sentences, the adjectival phrases are correctly
positioned near the nouns to be modified.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#17">Exercise 17</A>.<BR>
<BR>
When an adjectival phrase is meant to modify a noun or pronoun which in
fact is not present in the sentence, the sentence can be corrected by
rewriting either the adjectival phrase or the rest of the sentence, so
that the missing noun or pronoun is supplied. For instance, in the
sentences below, the phrases containing dangling participles are
underlined.<BR>
e.g. <U>Running across the road</U>, his hat blew off.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Sitting lost in thought</U>, the book slipped from her hand.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Determined not to be late</U>, our watches were set ten minutes fast.<BR>
<BR>
These sentences can be corrected as follows. In the corrected
sentences, the noun or pronoun which was missing from the original
sentence is underlined. Two corrected versions are given for each of
the preceding sentences.<BR>
e.g. As <U>he</U> ran across the road, his hat blew off.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Running across the road, <U>he</U> lost his hat.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; As <U>she</U> sat lost in thought, the book slipped from her hand.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sitting lost in thought, <U>she</U> let the book slip from her hand.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Because <U>we</U> were determined not to be late, our watches were set ten
minutes fast.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Determined not to be late, <U>we</U> set our watches ten minutes fast.<BR>
<BR>
In the first corrected version of each of the preceding sentences, the
adjectival phrase has been changed to an adjectival clause containing
the pronoun which was missing from the original sentence. Thus, the
interpolated phrase <B>running across the road</B> has been changed to the
subordinate clause <B>as he ran across the road</B>, the interpolated phrase
<B>sitting lost in thought</B> has been changed to the subordinate clause <B>as she sat lost in thought</B>, and the interpolated phrase <B>determined not to
be late</B> has been changed to the subordinate clause <B>because we were
determined not to be late</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 273-->
In the second corrected version of each of the sentences, the main clause
of the sentence has been rewritten so that the pronoun which was missing
from the original sentence is positioned next to the adjectival phrase
which is meant to modify the pronoun. Thus, whereas in the incorrect
sentences, the underlined adjectival phrases seem to modify the adjacent
nouns <B>hat</B>, <B>book</B> and <B>watches</B>; in the corrected sentences, the
adjectival phrases correctly modify the pronouns <B>he</B>, <B>she</B> and <B>we</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#18">Exercise 18</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="6d"></A>
<B>d. Past participles which follow the verb To Be</B><BR>
In English, the verb <B>to be</B> followed by a past participle used as a
predicate adjective has the same form as a verb in the Passive Voice.
This feature of the language can result in ambiguity. For instance,
the following examples each have more than one possible meaning.<BR>
e.g. The doors <U>will be closed</U> at nine o'clock.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The train <U>was stopped</U> at midnight.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, <B>will be closed</B> could be the Simple Future of the
verb <B>to be</B>, followed by the predicate adjective <B>closed</B>. In this case,
the sentence would have the meaning that at nine o'clock, the doors will
not be open. On the other hand, <B>will be closed</B> could be the Simple
Future Passive of the verb <B>to close</B>. In this case, the sentence would
imply that at nine o'clock, someone will close the doors.<BR>
<BR>
Similarly, in the second example, <B>was stopped</B> could be the Simple Past
of the verb <B>to be</B>, followed by the predicate adjective <B>stopped</B>. In
this case, the sentence would indicate that at midnight, the train was
not moving. On the other hand, <B>was stopped</B> could be the Simple Past
Passive of the verb <B>to stop</B>. In this case, the sentence would imply
that at midnight, someone stopped the train.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex21.html#19">Exercise 19</A>.

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